Roman Military Disasters Read online

  First published in Great Britain in 2015 by

  Pen & Sword Military

  An imprint of

  Pen & Sword Books Ltd

  47 Church Street

  Barnsley

  South Yorkshire

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  Copyright © Paul Chrystal, 2015

  ISBN: 978 1 47382 357 0

  PDF ISBN: 978 1 47387 396 4

  EPUB ISBN: 978 1 47387 395 7

  PRC ISBN: 978 1 47387 394 0

  The right of Paul Chrystal to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

  A CIP catalogue record for this book is

  available from the British Library.

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  For the late Eric Wright Chrystal

  Contents

  Acknowledgements

  List of Plates

  List of Diagrams

  List of Maps

  Timeline

  Introduction

  Part One: The Republic

  Chapter 1 Rome’s Peninsular Wars

  Chapter 2 The Roman War Machine

  Chapter 3 The Sources

  Chapter 4 The Fourth Century: the Gallic Invasion and the Samnite Wars

  Chapter 5 The Third Century: the Wars with Pyrrhus, the Punic Wars and the Gallic Invasion

  Chapter 6 The Second Century: the Spanish Wars, Viriathus and the Invasion of the Northmen

  Chapter 7 The First Century: the Social War, Spartacus, Mithridates, Crassus, the Parthians and the Gauls

  Chapter 8 ‘Doom Monster’ – Cleopatra VII

  Part Two: The Empire

  Chapter 9 The Early Empire: Clades Lolliana 16 BC, the Teutoburg Forest AD 9

  Chapter 10 Boudica’s Revolt AD 60

  Chapter 11 Beth-Horon AD 66 and the Jewish War AD 68

  Chapter 12 Carnuntum AD 170; the Crisis of the Third Century – Abritus AD 251, Edessa AD 260

  Chapter 13 The Theban Legion Massacre AD 286

  Chapter 14 Adrianople AD 378

  Chapter 15 Alaric’s Sack of Rome AD 410

  Epilogue

  Appendix 1: Typical Cursus Honorum in the Second Century BC

  Appendix 2: Roman Assemblies

  Appendix 3: The Seven Kings of Rome

  Appendix 4: Some Carthaginian Generals

  Appendix 5: Greek and Roman Authors

  Appendix 6: Glossary of Greek and Latin Terms

  Notes

  Bibliography

  Acknowledgements

  Thanks to my teachers at school and university, firstly for inspiring me in things classical and then for having the patience and skill to nurture that inspiration. They are: John Hogg, of Hartlepool Grammar School, who started it all with Path to Latin I and Civis Romanus; Dick Jenkinson, Stan Ireland and Tim Ryder at Hull University, who kept it going with Virgil’s Epische Technik, Roman Britain and purple patches in Cary’s A History of Rome; their colleagues, the late Frank Norman for Thucydides, Chris Strachan for Thales and Plato, and the late Jeff Hilton for Aeschylus’ Frogs and Plautus; finally, David Rankin at Southampton University, my MPhil tutor, who gave sound advice on Roman love poets and their women, and some very enjoyable lunches.

  I must also thank the following for supplying images: Theresa Calver, Colchester & Ipswich Museum Service, for the magnificent Temple of Claudius artwork on the front cover; Geoff Cook at Cardiff City Hall, for the photograph of the Boudica statue; Professor Tod Bolen at Bibleplaces.com, Santa Clarita, California, for the photos of Jerusalem; Markus Krueger at Digital Park in Lage, Germany, for the Hermann photo; euskadiz.com for the Teutoburg swamp; and The Schiller Inc, Washington, DC, for the Thomas Cole ‘Destruction’ image: www.theathenaeum.org/art/list.php?m=a&s=du&aid=375

  Plates

  List of Plates

  1. Brennus and His Share of the Spoils (1837) by Paul Jamin

  2. Figurehead from the French battleship Brennus

  3. Hannibal looting slaughtered Romans after Cannae

  4. Manuscript miniature showing Eleazar killing an elephant

  5. Persian scythe-wheeled chariots at Carrhae

  6. Statue of the Parthian general Surena

  7. Statue of the rebel slave Eunus

  8. Statue of Lusitanian guerrilla fighter Viriathus

  9. The Crucified Slaves (1878) by Fyodor Andreyevich Bronnikov

  10. The Death of Spartacus (1882) by Herman Vogel

  11. Statue of Boudica and her daughters

  12. Relief showing Roman soldiers casting lots for Christ’s robes

  13. Reconstruction of a Roman siege tower, as used at Masada

  14. The rampart walk on the East Wall, Jerusalem

  15. Frieze fragment showing Roman soldiers in their armour

  16. Germanic Warriors Storm the Field in the Varusschlact (1909) by Otto Albert Koch

  17. Hermannsdenkmal (1875), a huge copper monument to Arminius

  18. Das Siegreich Vordringende Hermann by Peter Janssen (1844–1908)

  19. Alaric’s river-bed burial after his reluctant sack of Rome

  20. The end of the Roman Empire, as depicted by Thomas Cole

  Diagrams

  List of Diagrams

  1. A Roman marching camp, as described by Polybius

  2. The Battle of Carrhae, Phase I

  3. The Battle of Carrhae, Phase II

  4. The Battle of Carrhae, Phase III

  5. The Battle of Carrhae, Phase IV

  Maps

  List of Maps

  1. Northern Italy

  2. Southern Italy

  3. North Africa

  4. Sicily

  5. Spain

  6. Greece

  7. The Near East at the Time of the First Romano-Parthian War

  Map 1: Northern Italy

  Map 2: Southern Italy

  Map 3: North Africa

  Map 4: Sicily

  Map 5: Spain

  Map 6: Greece

  Map 7: The Near East at the Time of the First Romano-Parthian War

  Timeline

  BC

  753 Traditional date for the founding of Rome by Romulus, as given by M. Terentius Varro.

  578–535 Traditional dates for Servius Tullius, reputed to have introduced hoplite warfare to Rome (Servian Reform); built Servian Walls around Rome.

  535–510 King Tarquinius Superbus – Rome’s last king. Rome has control over all Latium.

  496 Establishment of the Roman Republic.

  496 Romans defeat the Latin League at Battle of Lake Regillus; Treaty of Cassius, foedus Cassianum.

  494 First secessio plebis.

  450 Romans defeat the Sabines.

  430 Romans defeat the Volsci and Aequi.

  400–396 Ten-year siege of Veii; Romans defeat the Etruscans.

  390 Gauls sack Rome.

  376 Consulship and military commands thrown open to plebeians.

  370 Servian Walls rebuilt.

  358 Second Treaty of Cassius.

  343–341 First Samnite War.

  341–338 Great Latin War; Antium taken.

  326–304 Second Samnite War; Rome is victorious.

  312 Work on Via Appia starts.

  298–290 Third Samnite War; Rome wins.

  295 Rome defeats the Gauls at Sentinum.

  280–275 Pyrrhic War; Pyrrhic victories; Pyrrhus hired by the Tarentines to fight Rome.

  264–241 First Punic War.

  236 Gates of the Temple of Janus closed for a change; Birth of Scipio Africanus.

  229–228 First Illyrian War; Rome wins.

  224 Rome massacres Gauls at Battle of Telamon.

  220–219 Second Illyrian War; Rome successful.

  218–202 Second Punic War.

  216 Disaster at Cannae.

  215–205 First Macedonian War; Rome defeats Philip V.

  213–211 Marcellus takes Syracuse; murder of Archimedes.

  198 Second Macedonian War.

  197 Philip V beaten at Cynoscephalae.

  195 Rome defeats Sparta in Roman–Spartan War.

  191–188 Rome defeats Antiochus III and the Aetolian League in Roman–Syrian War.

  184 Death of Scipio Africanus.

  181–179 First Celtiberian War.

  171–168 Macedonian War.

  155–139 Romans defeat Lusitanians under Viriathus.

  154–151 First Numantine Wa
r.

  150–146 Fourth Macedonian War.

  149–146 Third Punic War; Carthage destroyed.

  146–145 Achaean League defeated and Corinth razed in Achaean War.

  143–133 Second Numantine War; Numantia destroyed.

  135–132 First Servile War.

  125–121 Rome victorious in Ligurian War.

  121–120 Rome defeats Allobroges and Averni.

  113–101 Rome defeats Cimbri and Teutones.

  112–106 Jugurthine War.

  104 Birth of Pompey.

  104–103 Second Servile War; military reforms of Marius.

  100 Birth of Julius Caesar.

  91–88 Social War.

  88–85 First Mithridatic War against Mithridates VI of Pontus.

  83–82 First Roman civil war, between Sulla and the popular faction; Second Mithridatic War.

  82 Sulla returns to Rome as dictator.

  74–66 Third Mithridatic War, won by Pompey.

  73–71 Servile War led by Spartacus.

  67 Pompey drives out the pirates.

  63 Fall of Jerusalem; consulship of Cicero; Catiline conspiracy.

  60–54 First Triumvirate formed by Gaius Julius Caesar, Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus.

  58–50 Caesar fights the Gallic Wars.

  54–53 Crassus defeated by the Parthians and killed.

  49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon and triggers the Second Roman Civil War against the Optimates, led by Pompey.

  44 Caesar assassinated.

  44–42 Third Roman Civil War, between the assassins of Caesar, led by Cassius and Brutus, and Octavian and Mark Antony.

  43 Octavian, Antony and Lepidus form the Second Triumvirate.

  31 Battle of Actium: Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra.

  30 Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide; Egypt is now a Roman province.

  27 End of the Republic, start of the Roman Empire; Octavian is now Augustus Caesar, the sole ruler of Rome.

  AD

  6 Judaea becomes a Roman province.

  9 Three Roman legions are destroyed by the Germans in the battle of the Teutoburg Forest.

  14 Death of Augustus; Tiberius emperor.

  43 Claudius invades Britain.

  60–61 Boudica, queen of the Iceni, leads a rebellion in Britain.

  71–84 Pacification of Britain; conquest of modern Wales and Scotland.

  238 Goths sack Roman Histria.

  258 Goths invade Asia Minor.

  260 Valerian taken captive by the Persians.

  284 Diocletian splits the empire into two and appoints Maximian emperor of the West and Diocletian the East.

  286 The Theban Legion massacre.

  303 Diocletian presides over the persecution of Christians.

  376 Greuthungi and Tervingi mass on the banks of the Danube seeking refuge within the Roman empire.

  378 Battle of Adrianople; death of Valens.

  395 Theodosius dies, leaving the Western Empire to his son Honorius and the Eastern Empire to his other son Arcadius.

  397 Treaty between Alaric and Eutropius; Alaric is Roman commander in Illyricum.

  405 Treaty between Alaric and Stilicho.

  410 Alaric sacks Rome.

  411 Alaric dies, succeeded by Athaulf.

  412 Honorius informs British provincials that Rome can no longer support them.

  Introduction

  The natural tendency amongst historians and writers generally when analyzing world superpowers, and the reasons for their superpower status, is to focus on the successes achieved by those superpowers, politically, socially and militarily. After all, these are what made these powerful nations or civilizations superpowers in the first place. However, paradoxically perhaps, reverses and disasters that may have been suffered on the way to superpower status are equally pivotal and significant. The experience of ancient Rome is no different. This book is the first to examine the role military disasters played in the success of Rome – one of the world’s greatest superpowers – as a Republic and as an Empire.

  The Oxford Concise Dictionary defines ‘disaster’ as a ‘great or sudden misfortune, a complete failure, a person or enterprise ending in failure’. Synonyms include failure, fiasco, catastrophe, calamity, mess, debacle. This book covers disasters in a military and a Roman context. It tells how and why the disasters occurred and how the Romans dealt with the consequences and aftermath of each calamity. It reveals how – apart from the final cataclysm that was the sack of Rome – they were able to rebound to achieve further military and political success. It is commonly believed that the Chinese ideogram for a crisis is the same as the character for opportunity. This has been exposed as a myth, but were it true, then the Romans would have recognized the connection: they frequently made an opportunity out of a military crisis.

  History tells us that there are many causes for a military disaster – or put in other words, a devastating defeat or a battle of annihilation. They include blunders by generals (most famously described in Tennyson’s The Charge of the Light Brigade); inadequate planning and preparation (as at the Somme); poor intelligence (as at Arnhem); confusion (Teutoburg Forest); mutiny (the Indian Mutiny); underestimation of the enemy (Adrianople); misjudgement (as at Cannae); arrogance or sloppy leadership on the part of the commander (as at Carrhae); complacency (Allia River); plain bad luck or, quite simply, a superior foe tactically or in terms of strength (Lake Trasimene). All of Rome’s military disasters came as a result of one or other of these.

  The ability to learn from military disasters and adapt accordingly is key to subsequent success and hegemony. The Romans, over some 1,200 years, were adept at learning the lessons of failure and adapting to new ways and methods, and it was this facility for flexibility and versatility which kept them in control of the Mediterranean and European worlds for much of that period. Arrian puts it well:

  [the Romans] are happy to pick out useful things all around and adapt them to their own use … they have taken certain weapons from others and now call them Roman … they also took military exercises from other peoples.1

  Roman Military Disasters covers sixty or so decisive and significant defeats; it examines and analyzes the history, politics or strategies which led to each conflict, how and why the Romans were defeated, the tactics deployed, the generals and the casualties. However, the unique and crucial element of the book is its focus on the aftermath and consequences of defeat, and how the lessons learnt enabled the Romans, usually, to bounce back and win subsequent battles and wars. The Roman way of forming alliances and extending reliance on Rome had the absolutely crucial benefit of providing a fathomless source of new recruits; this enabled the Romans to replenish their armies even after crushing defeats like Cannae and Teutoburg Forest, the like of which brought other nations to their knees.

  The Roman socio-political system also protected Rome against total annihilation. The dominance of the aristocracy, the senatorial and equestrian elite, provided a ready and self-perpetuating supply of generals and dictators, while the desire for military glory, triumphs and celebrity, and the increasing venality which accompanied the acquisition of more and more booty, kept the Roman war machine ticking over and, usually, in good order. Economics too played its part: as Roman territory expanded, so did the need to acquire more land on which to cultivate the crops needed to feed the growing number of citizens and inhabitants. The early insistence on a land qualification for the military, which, in turn, enabled the farmer or landowner-cum-soldier to pay for his essential weapons and armour, was central to the growth and development of the Roman army. Later, veterans had to be found somewhere to settle. Security too was an ever-present concern: as Rome’s borders expanded, so did the need to secure and defend her borders to ensure the safety of the inhabitants, expanding trade and natural resources within. This manifested itself in further expansionism and the recruitment of more troops to man the borders or to invade beyond. Sometimes this caused a military disaster: when it did, it was all the more important to rebound with a vengeance.

  The book also provides some useful context, with chapters on the military experience of early Rome and the evolving war machine. Primary sources are, of course, fundamental to any study of this kind: who and what they are and what they tell us, reliably or otherwise, is covered in a separate chapter. There are also helpful sections on various aspects of the Roman military experience, including war elephants, the chariot as an instrument of war, war rape and siegecraft.